Fertility: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis, and Treatment
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Fertility (the ability to conceive and have children) is a fundamental aspect of reproductive health that affects millions of people worldwide. Both men and women can experience infertility (difficulty conceiving after one year of unprotected intercourse), and it is far more common than many realize. Around 1 in 8 couples struggle with infertility at some point. The good news is that modern fertility evaluation and treatment make it possible for many to achieve pregnancy. This page covers fertility for people of all genders, including both male fertility and female fertility.
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- Clomiphene Citrate (Clomid)
- Estradiol (Estrace)
- Ganirelix Acetate (Fyremadel)
- Progesterone (Prometrium)
Condition at a Glance
Also known as
Infertility, reproductive health, and conception difficulty
Condition type
Varies (can be temporary or chronic; some reversible, some not)
Common symptoms
Often asymptomatic; failure to conceive after 12 months (or 6 months if age 35+) is the primary indicator
Common causes
Ovulation disorders, low sperm count, tubal blockage, endometriosis, hormonal imbalances, age, and lifestyle factors
Typical treatments
- Clomiphene Citrate (Clomid)
- Estradiol (Estrace)
- Ganirelix Acetate (Fyremadel)
- Progesterone (Prometrium)
When to see a doctor
After 12 months of unprotected intercourse without conceiving (or 6 months if age 35+), or if you have known risk factorsAfter 12 months of unprotected intercourse without conceiving (or 6 months if age 35+), or if you have known risk factors
What Is Fertility?
Fertility is the natural capacity to conceive and produce offspring. It depends on a complex interplay of hormonal, reproductive, and overall health factors in both partners. For people trying to conceive, fertility is often discussed in terms of infertility, defined as the inability to become pregnant or achieve a successful pregnancy after one year of unprotected intercourse (or six months for people age 35 and older). Infertility affects approximately 15% of reproductive-age couples and is not limited to women. Male factor infertility accounts for about 30–40% of cases.
Male Fertility
Male fertility depends on the production, motility, and morphology of sperm. Spermatozoa are specialized male reproductive cells produced in the testes that carry genetic material and are capable of fertilizing an egg. Healthy sperm have specific characteristics:
- Adequate count (at least 15 million per milliliter of semen)
- Good motility (ability to swim toward an egg)
- Normal morphology (shape and structure)
Male fertility issues can result from problems at any stage of sperm production, transport, or function. Common conditions include low sperm count (oligospermia), poor sperm motility (asthenospermia), abnormal sperm shape (teratospermia), or complete absence of sperm (azoospermia).
Female Fertility
Female fertility depends on regular ovulation, patent fallopian tubes, and a uterine environment conducive to implantation. Each menstrual cycle, the ovaries release a mature egg during ovulation, which travels down the fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized by sperm. The fertilized egg then implants in the uterus and develops into a pregnancy.
Female fertility issues can result from problems with ovulation (polycystic ovary syndrome, irregular cycles), tubal blockage or damage (from endometriosis, infection, or surgery), uterine abnormalities, or hormonal imbalances. Age is also a significant factor. Fertility declines gradually starting in the 30s and sharply after age 35 due to declining egg quantity and quality.
Signs of Fertility Issues or Infertility
Fertility challenges often have no obvious symptoms. The primary indicator is the inability to conceive after one year of regular unprotected intercourse (or six months for those aged 35 and older). However, underlying conditions affecting fertility may produce symptoms.
Many men with low sperm count or other male fertility issues have no noticeable symptoms. Some men may experience difficulty with sexual function (erectile dysfunction, ejaculation problems), or notice visible changes in semen volume or consistency. In some cases, pain or swelling in the testes may signal an underlying condition affecting fertility.
Women with ovulation disorders may notice irregular or absent menstrual periods. Those with endometriosis may experience painful periods, pelvic pain, or painful intercourse. Polycystic ovary syndrome often presents with irregular cycles, excess hair growth, acne, or weight gain.
However, many women with conditions affecting fertility have no symptoms and only discover the issue when attempting to conceive.
When to See a Doctor
Because fertility issues can be hidden, the most important reason to see a doctor is if you’ve been trying to conceive without success. Seek evaluation for fertility concerns if you:
- have been trying to conceive for 12 months without success (or 6 months if age 35 or older)
- have known risk factors for fertility issues (endometriosis, PCOS, low sperm count, family history, previous pelvic surgery or infection)
- have irregular menstrual periods, painful periods, or symptoms of hormonal imbalance
- experienced or are experiencing sexual dysfunction or ejaculation problems
- had a vasectomy or tubal ligation and are now considering reversal
- wish to preserve fertility before undergoing cancer treatment or other procedures
Your primary care doctor can perform an initial evaluation and may refer you to a reproductive endocrinologist (fertility specialist) for more comprehensive testing and treatment planning.
What Causes Fertility Issues?
Fertility issues have multiple causes, and often both partners contribute to the difficulty:
- In roughly 30% of cases, an identifiable problem is found in the female partner
- In another 30%, in the male partner
- In 20%, in both
- In 20%, no specific cause is identified (unexplained infertility)
Caues of Male Infertility
Low sperm count results from problems with sperm production in the testes due to genetic factors, hormonal imbalances, heat exposure, varicocele (enlarged veins in the scrotum), infections, medications, or lifestyle factors (smoking, heavy alcohol use, drug use). Poor sperm motility or abnormal morphology can stem from similar causes. Complete absence of sperm (azoospermia) can result from blockage in the reproductive tract or failure of sperm production.
Causes of Female Infertility
Ovulation disorders (PCOS, thyroid disease, elevated prolactin) prevent regular egg release. Tubal damage or blockage from endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease, previous surgery, or infection prevents sperm from reaching the egg. Endometriosis (tissue growth outside the uterus) causes inflammation and adhesions affecting fertility. Hormonal imbalances (low progesterone, luteal phase defect) may prevent proper uterine preparation for implantation.
Age is the most significant factor because female fertility typically peaks in the 20s and declines progressively, with significant acceleration after age 35.
Lifestyle and Other Factors
Smoking, heavy alcohol use, recreational drug use, obesity, severe underweight, excessive exercise, and chronic stress all impair fertility in both men and women. Certain medications and medical conditions (diabetes, thyroid disorders, autoimmune conditions) affect fertility. Previous use of some contraceptives (like hormonal birth control) does not permanently affect fertility as well, although fertility typically returns within 1–3 months of stopping.
Risk Factors
Some risk factors for fertility issues you can change, and some you cannot. Knowing which is which helps you understand where you have the most control.
Non-Modifiable Risk Factors
- Age: Female fertility declines with age, particularly after 35. Male fertility also declines with age, though more gradually.
- Genetics and family history: Family history of infertility, early menopause, or reproductive disorders increases personal risk.
- Previous reproductive history: A history of miscarriages, ectopic pregnancies, or pelvic infections affects fertility.
Modifiable Risk Factors
- Weight gain: Both obesity and being significantly underweight reduce fertility. Weight loss or gain to a healthy range can improve fertility outcomes.
- Substance use: Smoking, alcohol, and recreational drugs harm sperm production and ovulation. Quitting improves fertility.
- Sexual health: Sexually transmitted infections (chlamydia, gonorrhea) can cause tubal blockage or inflammation. Safe sex practices and treatment reduce risk.
- Stress and mental health: Chronic stress may affect ovulation and sexual function. Stress management techniques can help.
- Environmental factors: Heat, chemical, and radiation exposure can harm sperm production. Reducing these exposures where possible is beneficial.
How Is Infertility Diagnosed?
Clinical Evaluation
Evaluation begins with a detailed history of menstrual cycles (for women), sexual frequency and function, previous pregnancies, surgeries, infections, and medications. For men, a history of mumps, testicular injury, and symptoms of sexual dysfunction are relevant.
A physical examination may identify signs of underlying conditions (thyroid enlargement, abdominal scars, testicular abnormalities).
Diagnostic Severity Categories
| Factor | Severity Category | Diagnostic Findings |
| Male Factor | Mild oligospermia | 5–15 million sperm/mL; normal motility and morphology |
| Female Factor – Ovulation | Anovulation (absent ovulation) | Absent or irregular menstrual cycles; no progesterone surge |
| Female Factor – Tubal | Unilateral tubal blockage | One fallopian tube patent; one tube blocked on HSG |
| Unexplained | Negative workup | Normal semen analysis, regular ovulation, patent tubes |
Diagnostic Tests
- For both partners: General health assessment includes blood tests for hormones, thyroid function, and infections (STIs). Semen analysis (for male partners) measures sperm count, motility, morphology, and volume; a normal sperm count is at least 15 million per milliliter. Ovulation confirmation (for female partners) uses basal body temperature tracking, ovulation predictor kits, or progesterone testing.
- For female partners: An ultrasound visualizes the ovaries and uterus, and checks for cysts or structural abnormalities. A hysterosalpingography (HSG) is an X-ray test to check for tubal blockage or uterine abnormalities. AMH (anti-müllerian hormone) testing assesses ovarian reserve and egg quantity. A hysteroscopy or laparoscopy allows direct visualization of the uterus or abdomen to diagnose endometriosis or structural problems.
- For male partners: A detailed semen analysis, with additional testing (DNA fragmentation, anti-sperm antibodies), may be performed if initial results are abnormal. Hormonal testing (testosterone, FSH, LH) evaluates sperm production. An ultrasound of the scrotum is used to evaluate for varicocele or other structural issues. Post-ejaculatory urinalysis is used to check for retrograde ejaculation.
How Is Fertility Treated?
Lifestyle Modifications
For both men and women, maintaining a healthy weight, exercising regularly, avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol, managing stress, and eating a balanced diet support fertility. Timing intercourse around ovulation (for those not using assisted reproduction) increases chances of conception during the fertile window (the five days before and the day of ovulation).
Medications
When lifestyle changes alone are insufficient, fertility medications are added:
- For women: Ovulation-stimulating medications (clomiphene citrate, letrozole, gonadotropins) promote egg development; progesterone supports the luteal phase.
- For men: Testosterone replacement or other medications address hormonal issues. Detailed medication information is provided in the Medications section below.
Advanced and Procedural Options
For couples who do not achieve pregnancy with medication and timing, advanced reproductive options offer higher conception rates:
- Intrauterine insemination (IUI) places washed sperm directly into the uterus during ovulation.
- In vitro fertilization (IVF) retrieves eggs, fertilizes them in a laboratory, and transfers resulting embryos into the uterus; it accounts for about 2% of all US births.
- Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) injects a single sperm directly into an egg during IVF for severe male factor infertility. Egg or sperm donation is used for people who cannot produce viable gametes.
- Surrogacy involves a gestational carrier carrying a pregnancy. Surgical repair can address blocked or damaged fallopian tubes, varicoceles, fibroids, or polyps affecting conception.
Fertility Medications and Supplements
Several categories of medications and supplements are used in fertility treatment, each addressing specific reproductive challenges.
Ovulation-Stimulating Medications
Clomiphene citrate (Clomid) blocks estrogen feedback, prompting the pituitary to increase FSH and LH, stimulating ovulation. Letrozole (Femara) is an alternative for those who do not respond to clomiphene. Gonadotropins (follicle-stimulating hormone and human menopausal gonadotropin) directly stimulate the ovaries to produce multiple eggs for IVF or IUI. These are injectable hormones.
Progesterone Support
Progesterone supplements (oral, vaginal, or injectable) support the luteal phase and uterine lining after ovulation or embryo transfer. This is critical during early pregnancy to prevent miscarriage.
Male Fertility Medications and Supplements
Testosterone replacement (in cases of documented low testosterone) improves sperm production. Clomiphene citrate and other medications can also stimulate testosterone production in men with low levels. Common fertility supplements for men include zinc (supports sperm production), selenium, coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), L-carnitine, and folate. Evidence for supplement efficacy varies; some show modest benefit in improving sperm parameters.
Female Fertility Supplements
Prenatal vitamins containing folic acid are recommended before and during attempts to conceive, as folate reduces the risk of neural tube defects. CoQ10, DHEA, and inositol (particularly myo-inositol for PCOS) have some evidence supporting improved egg quality and ovulation. Vitamin D deficiency is associated with infertility; supplementation to adequate levels (25–50 ng/mL) may improve outcomes.
Living With Fertility Challenges
For many people, the journey to parenthood involves setbacks. Infertility can be emotionally taxing, and the psychological impact of failed cycles, treatments, and financial costs should not be minimized. Support through counseling, support groups, or trusted friends is valuable.
Can Fertility Be Restored?
This is one of the most common questions, and the answer is nuanced. For primary infertility due to modifiable factors, significant lifestyle changes (weight loss, sodium reduction, stress management, smoking cessation) can sometimes restore fertility without medication. Secondary infertility can sometimes resolve if the underlying cause is treated. For other cases, fertility may not be naturally restored, but medical treatments often enable conception. Advances in assisted reproductive technologies mean that many people who thought they could not have biological children now can.
Overall Patient Outlook
With modern fertility treatment, many people who struggle with conception are able to achieve pregnancy and parenthood. IVF success rates vary by age, quality of eggs and sperm, and underlying causes, but range from 40–60% per cycle for younger women, dropping to 20–30% for women aged 40+. Even with unexplained infertility, persistence often yields results. For those who choose not to pursue biological parenthood, adoption and other family-building options exist.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Didn’t see the answers you’re looking for in this article? Check out this comprehensive FAQ for more details.
Symptoms & Warning Signs
Infertility is the inability to become pregnant after one year of regular unprotected intercourse (or six months if age 35 or older). It affects approximately 15% of reproductive-age couples and can involve male, female, or combined factors. Infertility is a treatable medical condition, not a disease.
Infertility is identified after 12 months of unprotected intercourse without conception (or 6 months if age 35 plus). For women, symptoms like irregular periods or endometriosis may suggest fertility issues. For men, sexual dysfunction or reduced semen volume may indicate concerns. Testing confirms the diagnosis.
Painful periods can indicate reduced fertility and should not be considered a sign of good fertility. Severe menstrual pain may signal endometriosis, fibroids, or polyps that affect conception ability. Mild monthly discomfort is normal, but persistent pain warrants evaluation by a gynecologist to rule out underlying conditions affecting fertility.
Secondary infertility is the difficulty conceiving after having at least one previous pregnancy. It occurs in about 10% of couples and results from age, previous pelvic surgery, infections, endometriosis, or changes in either partner's fertility. Evaluation and treatment are similar to those for primary infertility.
Sperm are male reproductive cells carrying genetic material capable of fertilizing eggs. Healthy sperm have an adequate count (at least 15 million per milliliter), good motility (the ability to swim toward an egg), and normal morphology (proper shape and structure). Semen analysis measures these parameters.
Under a microscope, healthy sperm appear as elongated cells with an oval head and a long tail. They should move in a forward, progressive pattern. A semen analysis evaluates sperm count, motility, morphology, and volume, with a normal sperm count of approximately 40–300 million cells per ejaculate.
Causes & Risk Factors
Most infertility results from "primary" (essential) infertility with no single identifiable cause, developing gradually from genetics and lifestyle factors. A smaller share is "secondary" infertility caused directly by another condition like kidney disease, sleep apnea, or hormonal disorders. Some medications also raise infertility risk.
Female infertility results from ovulation disorders (PCOS, thyroid disease), tubal blockage or damage (endometriosis, infection, surgery), uterine abnormalities, hormonal imbalances, or age-related egg quality decline. Approximately 30% of infertility cases involve female factors alone.
Yes, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) frequently causes infertility by preventing regular ovulation. Most women with PCOS experience difficulty conceiving, though treatment exists. Options include metformin, hormonal medications, weight management, and lifestyle changes that restore ovulation.
Yes, endometriosis (tissue growing outside the uterus) reduces fertility by causing inflammation and adhesions. Approximately 30–40% of women with endometriosis experience infertility. Treatment includes surgery, hormonal medications, and assisted reproductive technologies like IVF.
No. Birth control does not cause permanent infertility. Fertility typically returns within one to three months of stopping hormonal contraceptives. Long-acting methods like IUDs and implants restore immediate fertility upon removal.
Infertility can have genetic components. Family history of early menopause, chromosomal abnormalities, or reproductive disorders increases personal risk. However, genetics is only one factor; age, lifestyle, infections, and medical conditions also significantly contribute to infertility.
Low sperm count results from genetic factors, hormonal imbalances, heat exposure, varicocele (enlarged scrotal veins), infections, medications, or lifestyle factors (smoking, heavy alcohol, drug use). Most causes are treatable with medication, surgery, or lifestyle modifications.
Diagnosis & Testing
Seek a fertility specialist after 12 months of unprotected intercourse without conception (or 6 months if age 35 plus), or if you have known risk factors like endometriosis, PCOS, irregular periods, or a family history of infertility. Early evaluation improves treatment outcomes.
Azoospermia is the complete absence of sperm in semen. It can be obstructive (blockage in the reproductive tract) or non-obstructive (failure of sperm production). Depending on the cause, treatment options include microsurgery, hormone therapy, or assisted reproduction with donor sperm.
Some ovarian cysts affect fertility; others do not. Functional cysts (from the ovulation process) usually resolve without treatment. Endometriomas and other pathologic cysts may impair ovulation or reduce egg quality. Ultrasound evaluation determines whether cysts require intervention.
Female fertility peaks in the 20s and declines gradually starting in the 30s. Decline accelerates significantly after age 35 due to a decline in egg quantity and quality. By age 40, conception becomes more challenging, and miscarriage risk increases substantially.
Treatment & Medications
IVF is an assisted reproductive technology where eggs are retrieved from the ovaries, fertilized with sperm in a laboratory, and the resulting embryos are transferred to the uterus. IVF is highly effective for various infertility causes and accounts for approximately 2% of all US births annually.
IVF involves five steps: ovarian stimulation (hormones produce multiple eggs), egg retrieval (collection under anesthesia), fertilization (eggs mixed with sperm or injected with ICSI), embryo development (cultured 3–5 days), and embryo transfer (placed in the uterus). Pregnancy testing occurs about two weeks after transfer.
IVF treatment is a multi-step fertility process beginning with ovarian stimulation to produce multiple eggs, followed by egg retrieval, laboratory fertilization, embryo culture, and embryo transfer into the uterus. IVF treatment addresses infertility by bypassing natural conception barriers and enabling pregnancy for many couples unable to conceive naturally.
IVF involves minimal discomfort. Egg retrieval uses anesthesia, making the procedure painless. Some women experience mild cramping or discomfort afterward. Hormone injections are brief and relatively painless. Most discomfort is minor and managed with over-the-counter pain medication.
IVF success rates vary by age, egg quality, and underlying causes. For women under 35, success rates per cycle range from 40–60%. Success decreases with age, dropping to 20–30% for women aged 40 plus. Multiple cycles significantly increase cumulative success rates.
Improve sperm count by maintaining a healthy weight, avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol, exercising regularly, managing stress, and eating a diet rich in antioxidants (vitamins C, E, zinc, selenium). Supplements like zinc and L-carnitine may help. Avoid prolonged heat exposure to the testes.
Increase semen volume by staying hydrated, maintaining a healthy weight, reducing stress, avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol, eating a nutrient-rich diet, and exercising regularly. Supplements that support sperm and semen health include zinc, L-carnitine, and vitamin E. Consult a fertility specialist if sperm volume remains low.
Improve sperm quality through lifestyle modifications (weight management, exercise, stress reduction, avoiding smoking and heat exposure), supplements (CoQ10, L-carnitine, folate), and treatment of underlying conditions (infections, hormone imbalances, varicocele). Medical treatments like testosterone replacement or clomiphene citrate address hormonal causes.
Living With & Outlook
Improve egg quality through a healthy lifestyle (Mediterranean diet, regular exercise, adequate sleep, stress management), prenatal vitamins with folate, CoQ10 supplementation (for women over 35), and vitamin D optimization. Reducing smoking and alcohol use and managing weight also enhances egg quality.
Prenatal vitamins do not increase fertility directly, but folic acid (a key prenatal ingredient) supports a healthy pregnancy and reduces neural tube defects. Taking prenatal vitamins before attempting conception is recommended. Additional fertility-specific supplements like CoQ10 or DHEA may offer modest benefits for some women.
Improve sperm morphology through lifestyle changes (weight management, exercise, stress reduction, avoiding smoking and heat exposure), supplements (CoQ10, L-carnitine, folate), and treating underlying conditions. Medical treatments like testosterone replacement or clomiphene citrate can address hormonal causes affecting sperm shape and structure.
Disclaimer
The information provided on this page is for general informational purposes only and is not intended as medical advice. Always consult with a licensed healthcare provider before starting, stopping, or changing any medication regimen. While Invictus strives to provide accurate and up-to-date information, individual health conditions and circumstances vary. The prices, availability, and descriptions of all medications on this page are subject to change.
